Rosalind Franklin
1920 – 1958
Rosalind Franklin
Physical Chemist
DNA
X-Ray Crystallography
Portrait of Dr. Rosalind Franklin.
In recent years, Dr. Rosalind Franklin’s story has become one of the most prominent examples of the Matilda Effect — a phenomenon wherein women scientists’ work is claimed by men due to gender biases. Though her life was cut short by ovarian cancer at the age of 37, Franklin’s contributions fundamentally affected our current understanding of the molecular structure of DNA.
The Matilda Effect persists as a significant challenge across both historical and modern contexts, with women continually confronting its impacts. We must uncover and understand these scientists’ stories in order to propel us toward a long-overdue solution.
Early LifeDr. Rosalind Franklin was born to Ellis and Muriel Franklin in London, England on July 25, 1920. The Franklins were an upper-middle-class Anglo-Jewish family whose ancestors had resided in England since the mid-1700s. From a young age, Franklin was a strong student, described by her Aunt Mamie Bentwich in a 1926 letter as “alarmingly clever — she spends her time doing arithmetic for pleasure, & invariably gets her sums right” (Maddox, 2002, p. 30). Franklin attended a boarding school in Sussex, England from age 9 to 11 before returning to London to attend St. Paul’s Girls’ School. Franklin’s interest in science was fostered at St. Paul’s, which housed advanced science facilities for the time. She won several scholarships and academic prizes at St Paul’s and took the University of Cambridge’s physics and chemistry entrance exams at age 17.
Academic StudiesFranklin became a student at Newnham College — one of two of Cambridge’s women’s colleges — in September 1938, and continued to be awarded scholarships and achieve top grades in physics and chemistry. Franklin graduated with a Second-Class Honour’s (the equivalent of a Bachelor’s degree). While attending a meeting of the Association of Scientific Workers at Cambridge, Franklin was introduced to X-ray crystallography, a method that uses X-rays to show the structure of crystals, which would become important in her life’s work.
During her education at Cambridge, the political and social climate in England was rapidly approaching war. The Franklin family helped Jewish refugees entering England to resettle after fleeing from Germany, Austria, and other European countries. Franklin was critical of the United Kingdom’s initial approach of pacifying Hitler.
After completing her undergraduate degree, Franklin continued to work as a research associate. However, once England entered World War II, women could be recalled from academia to join the war effort while men were permitted to continue their scientific research. Fortunately, Franklin found a position that supported both the war effort and her scientific career. As an assistant research officer at the British Coal Utilisation Research Association, she studied the porosity of various forms of coal and carbon under different conditions. This work was important to the war effort because carbon was used in gas mask filters. This work also helped Franklin hone her techniques in X-ray crystallography.
Early Research & Facing DiscriminationIn 1945, Franklin earned a Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from Cambridge. Two years later, she moved to Paris, France, to work as a researcher at the Laboratoire Central des Services Chimiques de L’Etat. Franklin loved France and enjoyed the more egalitarian treatment of women scientists. Franklin wrote that her colleagues at Cambridge “resent[ed] and generally ignore[d] my presence” during her time as a student and research associate (Maddox, 2002, p. 83). However, Franklin faced pressure from her family to return to England, and in 1951, she moved back to London to work as a research fellow at the Biophysical Laboratory at King’s College, London.
In 1951, Rosalind Franklin returned to London, joining King's College as a research fellow in the Biophysical Laboratory, marking a significant chapter in her scientific career.
Focused Research on DNAIn post-war Britain, many physicists and chemists turned their attention to biological materials, inspired by Austrian scientist Erwin Schrodinger’s short book What is Life? Schrodinger’s influential book argued that the laws of physics could help explain biological mechanisms. Working with Maurice Wilkins at King's College, Rosalind Franklin began studying the properties of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) through the application of X-ray crystallography. She designed a tilting camera to photograph the DNA molecules and discovered that the structure of DNA could take two separate forms — a crystalline structure (A form) and a paracrystalline structure (B form). The B form exhibited the remarkable ability to elongate upon hydration, facilitating the capture of more distinct and vivid photographs. Scientists knew that if they could identify the internal structure of the DNA molecule, this discovery would unlock the mystery of how DNA transmitted genetic material across generations.
Micro-camera and stand designed by Len Pitches in the King's workshops, intended for capturing images of inclined fibres. The configuration, comprising the base plate and specimen holder, was encased in a sturdy brass cover and sealed with a rubber gasket. This assembly was used in conjunction with the Philips micro-camera to obtain the historic Photo 51 — the detailed B-form photograph of DNA that played a pivotal role in understanding its structure.
In early May 1952, Franklin took the clearest photograph to date of DNA, a photograph labelled Photo 51, which was captured on the Tilting micro-camera and stand. A colleague, John Desmond Bernal, later described Franklin’s DNA photographs as “among the most beautiful X-ray photographs of any substance ever taken” (Bernal, 1958, p. 154). The photograph appeared to show that DNA has a helical structure; however, Franklin was meticulous and did not want to rush to share her findings with the world until she felt she had gathered sufficient evidence.
Continued Discrimination & BelittlementAs with her time at Cambridge, Franklin again faced sexism and hostility at King’s College. Although she was one of several women working in the lab at the time, women were not allowed into the common room at King’s College.
Francis Crick, whom she knew through his work on DNA at Birkbeck College, later wrote,
James Watson wrote about first seeing Franklin,
In early 1953, Franklin was scheduled to move to Birkbeck College to escape what she felt was an inhospitable working environment at King’s College. There, she continued to study the structure of DNA and other biological substances using X-ray crystallography. Just before the move to Birkbeck, Wilkins showed Franklin’s Photo 51 to Watson without her knowledge. Watson had also accessed some of Franklin’s other unpublished data without her knowledge.
Stolen DNAJames Watson and Francis Crick were also working on studying the structure of DNA at Birkbeck College; however, they took a theoretical approach. Watson and Crick published a paper in the April 1953 issue of the journal Nature, arguing that DNA has a double-helix structure. Franklin authored a paper in the same issue of Nature, which included the important Photo 51. However, Franklin’s work in the discovery of the structure was essentially unrecognized.
A year after the publication of the ground-breaking Nature articles, Watson and Crick published another paper with a footnote acknowledging,
From left to right: James D. Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice Wilkins, colleagues of Rosalind Franklin. Notably, it was Wilkins who — without Franklin's consent — revealed her Photo 51 to Watson and Crick.
After her work on DNA, Franklin turned her attention to studying the structure of viruses, particularly the tobacco mosaic virus. During her career, Franklin spoke frequently at scientific conferences throughout Europe and published extensively on the structure of carbon, DNA, and viruses in peer-reviewed journals.
On a visit to the United States in 1954, Franklin wrote,
In 1956, Franklin was diagnosed with ovarian cancer and tragically died two years later at the age of 37. Her early death meant that she did not get to see the effects of her work across the scientific community.
The Matilda EffectIn 1962, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins were famously awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine “for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material” (Garman, 2020).
Neither Watson nor Crick acknowledged Franklin in their acceptance speeches.
In 1962, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of the DNA structure. Notably absent from their acceptance speeches was any acknowledgment of Rosalind Franklin's crucial contribution to their research.
LegacyIn the decades since her death, countless articles have been written in support of Franklin’s pivotal role in the discovery of the structure of DNA. Despite the presence of detractors who diminish her achievements, citing Nobel Prize eligibility constraints and the absence of direct testimonies, the scientific community persistently endeavours to rectify historical inaccuracies. This ongoing effort ensures her legacy is represented accurately and her instrumental role in this scientific breakthrough is acknowledged widely.
We have authored and illustrated this entry with care and respect, aiming to achieve the highest standards through diligent, balanced research. We also strive to maintain the highest standards of accuracy and fairness to ensure information is diligently researched and regularly updated. Please contact us should you have further perspectives or ideas to share on this article.
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Bernal, J. D. (1958). Dr. Rosalind E. Franklin. Nature, 182(4629), 154. https://doi.org/10.1038/182154a0
Cobb, M., & Comfort, N. (2023). What Rosalind Franklin truly contributed to the discovery of DNA’s structure. Nature, 616(7958), 657–660. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-01313-5Crick, F. H. C., & Watson, J. D. (1954). The complementary structure of deoxyribonucleic acid. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and physical sciences, 223(1152), 80 - 96. https://www.jstor.org/stable/99239
Franklin, R. E., & Gosling, R. G. (1953). Molecular configuration in sodium thymonucleate. Nature, 171(4356), 740–741. https://doi.org/10.1038/171740a0
Garman, E. F. (2020). Rosalind Franklin 1920–1958. Structural Biology, 76(7), 698–701. https://doi.org/10.1107/s2059798320008827
Glynn, J. (2012). Remembering my sister Rosalind Franklin. The Lancet, 379(9821), 1094–1095. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(12)60452-8
Harris, P. J. F., & Suarez-Martinez, I. (2021). Rosalind Franklin, carbon scientist. Carbon, 171, 289–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2020.09.022
Judson, H. F. (1996). The eighth day of creation: Makers of the revolution in biology. (Expanded Edition) Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
Maddox, B. (2003). Rosalind Franklin: The dark lady of DNA. HarperCollins.
King’s Collections : Exhibitions & Conferences. (2024). The momentum builds. https://kingscollections.org/exhibitions/archives/dna/key-discoveries/momentum
Watson, J. D. (2001). The double helix: a personal account of the discovery of the structure of DNA. Touchstone.
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Website Name: The Matilda Project
Title of Entry: Rosalind Frankin
Authors: Jennifer Reniers & Brandon Sabourin
Illustrator: Shehryar (Shay) Saharan
Editors: Sandy Marshall & Shehroze Saharan
Original Publication Date: February 16, 2024
Last Updated: March 31, 2024
Copyright: CC BY-NC-ND
Webpage Specific Tags: Rosalind Frankin; X-ray crystallography; DNA structure; Photo 51; Double helix; King's College London; Contribution to molecular biology; Female scientist in 20th century; Biophysics; Viral structure research; RNA virus; Polio virus; Tobacco mosaic virus; Gender bias in science; Posthumous recognition; Pioneer in structural biology; Women in STEM history; Nobel Prize controversy; Role model for women in science; Intersection of chemistry and biology; Structural virology.
Website Tags: The Matilda Project, The Matilda Effect; Margaret W. Rossiter; Matilda Joslyn Gage; Implicit bias; Unconscious bias; Gender attribution bias; Scientific recognition bias; Gender discrimination in academia; Stereotype threat; Pay gap in STEM; Glass ceiling in science; Sexism in scientific research; Gender stereotypes in education; Gender bias in peer review; Bias in STEM hiring practices; Impact of gender bias on scientific innovation; Underrecognition of female scientists; History of women in science; Women scientists in history; Notable women in science; Pioneering women scientists; Women Nobel laureates; Female role models in science; Gender disparities in scientific research; Women's suffrage movement; Historical women's rights leaders; Historian of science; STEM gender gap; Women in STEM; STEM education; Challenges faced by women in STEM; Representation of women in tech; Initiatives to support women in STEM; Gender equity in STEM education; Encouraging girls in STEM; STEM outreach programs; Diversity in STEM curriculum; Equity, Diversity, Inclusion; Equity in education and workplace; Diversity training; Inclusion strategies; Inclusive leadership; Gender equality; Racial equity; Pay equity and transparency; Representation in media.
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APA Citation:
Reniers, J., & Sabourin, B. (2024, March 31). Rosalind Franklin. The Matilda Project. https://www.thematildaproject.com/scientists/rosalind-franklin
Authors
Dr. Jennifer Reniers
Manager of Curriculum and Academic Quality Assurance - Office of Quality Assurance at the University of Guelph
Dr. Jennifer Reniers is a Manager, Curriculum and Academic Quality Assurance at the University of Guelph. In this role, Reniers enjoys collaborating with faculty and staff on continuous curriculum improvement initiatives. Reniers holds a Ph.D. in Applied Social Psychology from the University of Guelph. Her dissertation research investigated the experience of awe and its psychological benefits. Reniers’ interest in emotion research stems from a lifetime of strong emotional reactions to literature, music, and human goodness and a desire to understand the experience of feeling moved.
Brandon Sabourin
Educational Developer - Office of Teaching and Learning at the University of Guelph
Brandon Sabourin is an Educational Developer in the Office of Teaching and Learning at the University of Guelph. His work focuses on curriculum review and development to support teaching and learning at the Ontario Veterinary College. Sabourin’s research interests include deep and surface approaches to learning, the scholarship of teaching and learning, and effective feedback practices. His Ph.D. research explored the educational development needs of sessional and contingent faculty informed by their approaches to teaching.
Illustrator
